Early interaction and Communication:

EARLY INTERACTION
AND
NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION


INTRODUCTION

Young infants and babies are not able to communicate by words in the way adults can. As a substitute, they use natural gestures, facial expression and vocalization, which are general. At the earliest stage, these are gross to start with - cries or wriggles – but their methods become more and more exact as they grown-up and their sounds amalgamate into words. Interaction with responsive adults is must to develop their communication.

Early interaction and Communication:

Early interaction:

Early interaction refers to the interaction between an infant and caregivers before development of verbal speech and language.

The word infant is derived from the Latin infans, which means, “ not speaking”. But a lot of communication occurs before verbal speech and language develop. Development of language depends on the development of earlier preverbal (before speech) interaction and communication. (Owens, 2001, pp.157)

Communication:

“Communication is a natural way in which people exchange ideas, ask for something or someone, comment on what is happening around them and express their feelings.” (Crishna, 1996, pp. 1)

In case of infants – communication is the way in which they can request, protest, greet, comment, and ask for objects, attention, action etc.

“ Communication does not suddenly start when the child begins to talk; it has been taking place from the moment he was born. Often the child and the adult may be quite unconscious that what they are doing is communicating.” (McConkey, 1986, pp. 41)


People/children usually communicate-

1) By using speech:

It refers to the verbal expression in a language that is realized by other surround the child and includes-

Words ­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­­----------- Hello
Phrases ----------- Hello, Mina
Sentences ----------- Mina is sitting on the table

2) By using non-verbal means:

Sound - which express happiness or sadness or a . response
Eye gaze - by looking at an object when infants want it
Facial expression - by smiling when infants are happy
Body language - by turning away from things they do not like
Pointing - by pointing with a finger or a hand to a person
Gesture - by waving their hand to say hello
Touching - by touching anybody to get attention
(Crishna, 1996, pp. 2-3)

We can say that though speech is most accepted and normal form of communication, it develops later after using a lot of non-verbal means in a child. These early non-verbal skills are very essential for a child in acquisition of language. Early interaction between infant and mother occurs with these non-verbal forms of communication. For example- non-specific crying which could indicate a need for food or comfort or relief from pain, But the mother or the caregiver, responds to this early, unclear message by trying to find out what the child wants. The mother may get that the child is hungry, wet, cold, pricked by a safety pin or plagued by a pain in his stomach.

Stages in Early Communication Development:

Between birth and age one

· Can differentiate mother’s voice from stranger’s voice.
· Cries to gain contact/cries for assistance, when happy/uncomfortable/in pain/ hungry (reinforced behavior)
· Increasingly, chronological rather than instantaneous speech begins to develop.
· Improved turn-taking outline (pauses for response)
· Rituals and game-playing develop
· Rituals (conventional routines of feeding bathing etc.)
· Games = anticipation-based (Peek-a-boo, round the garden)
· These sequences of mutual gaze, smiles, and vocalization are like “protoconversation” (similar to conversation)
· Recognizes and responds to own name
· Interactions become more about the infant, caregiver and an object (i.e. triangle reference)
· Recognizes name of familiar people (mum, dad)
· Says 2-3 words besides "mama" and "baba".
· Use simple social gesture, e.g. wave bye bye, clap
· Turns to search and localize used words such as all gone, no, bye bye (Bangla-shes, na, bye bye)
Between one and two
· Understands "no".
· Uses 20 to 40 words, including names.
Uses new words regularly.
Removes shoes, socks, pants, and sweater
Replaces familiar objects where they belong
Sleeps ten-twelve hours at night
Refers to self by name.
Combines two words such as "daddy bye-bye".
Waves good-bye
Plays by self; initiates own play
Builds tower of 6-7 blocks.
Makes the "sounds" of familiar animals.
Uses word such, as "more" to make wants known.
Brings object from another room when asked.
Between two and three
Identifies body parts.
Gives full name.
Holds up fingers to tell age.
Carries on 'conversation' with self and dolls.
Asks, "What's that?" And "where's my?"
Uses 2-word negative phrases such as "no want".
Has a 450-word vocabulary.
Combines nouns and verbs "mummy come".
Understands simple time concepts: "last night", "tomorrow".
Refers to self as "me" rather than by name.
Tries to get adult attention: "watch me".
Likes to hear same story repeated.
May say "no" when means "yes".
Talks to other children as well as adults.
Solves problems by talking instead of hitting or crying.
Answers "where" questions.
Matches 3-4 colors, knows big and little
Names common pictures and things.
Uses short sentences like "me want more" or "me want biscuit".
Between three and four
Uses verb forms.
Uses 'I', 'you'.
Uses 'this', 'that'.
Names at least one color.
Counts to five.
Verbalizes recent experiences.
Can tell a story.
Understands 'what', 'where'
Uses 'what', 'where' and occasionally 'when', 'who'.
Has a sentence length of 4-5 words.
Has a vocabulary of nearly 1000 words.
Understands "yesterday," "summer", "lunchtime", "tonight", "little-big".
Begins to obey requests like "put the block under the chair".
Knows his or her last name, name of street on which he/she lives and several nursery rhymes
Between four and five
Has sentence length of 4-5 words.
Uses past tense correctly.
Comprehends the concept of 'better than'.
Uses size and colour adjectives in sentence form.
Has a vocabulary of nearly 1500 words.
Points to colors red, blue, yellow and green.
Identifies triangles, circles and squares.
Understands "In the morning", "next", "noontime".
Can speak of imaginary conditions such as "I hope".
Asks many questions, asks "who?" and "why?"
Outline of stages of early communication:

Perlocutionary stage 0-8 months:

· Infant has no goal awareness
· Attends to and responds to stimuli
· Uses undifferentiated behaviors (e.g. crying)
· Deliberate communicative attempts increase gradually (gestures, reaching)

Illocutionary stage 8-9 months:

· Coordinated plan to achieve goals
· Infant uses eye contact and repetition
· Uses gestures
· Uses protoimperatives (requests-reaching, pointing)
· Uses protodeclaratives (maintaining joint attention-pointing, showing)

Locutionary 12 months:

· Begins with first meaningful words and gestures together
· Words accompany or replace gestures to express
· Symbolic interaction occurs
· Elicited speech sounds sometimes words


STAGES OF EARLY COMMUNICATION

Coupe and Goldbart (1988) discuss 6 stages of early communication. These are-

Stage 1. Pre-intentional-Reflexive stage:

The carer to the individual’s very early and reflexive behaviours assigns communicative intent and meaning. These are produced in response to internal and external stimuli (especially auditory and visual stimuli) eg. Startle reflex, sucking reflex. At the reflexive level, the person appears to sleep a lot. However, when awake the individual will gaze at people or objects, which come into his or her visual field (15-20 cm). When the caregiver makes eye contact with the individual it is known as “mutual gaze.
Stage 2. Pre-intentional-Reactive stage:

The carer to the individual’s reactive behaviours assigns communicative intent and meaning. The individual reacts to people objects or events within his or her environment. He or she reacts to stimuli from all senses. There is now an expanded range of body and lime movements and vocalizations e.g. trunk turning, hand to mouth behaviours and a greater variety of facial movements. He or she learns to repeat a pleasurable action. The carer will talk to the individual and the content of the conversation will relate to the activity that they are involved in e.g. “Here is your dinner’’- at dinner time. The individual responds to different tones of voice and to different facial expressions. He or she will search for sound sources, especially speech or music. Any sound or movement made by the individual will have a major effect on the carer’s behaviour. At this stage, the first smile appears. Mutual gaze is changing and leading into shared attention where the individual and the carer may appear to be “looking” at the same object or event and the carer will comment on it.

Stage3. Pre-intentional-Proactive stage:

The individual’s efforts to act on the environment become signals to the carer who then assigns communicative intent and meaning. At this stage, there is the beginning of acting purpose fully on objects. The individual begins to realise that objects exits even if they cannot see them. He or she can retrieve partially hidden objects and can recognise some objects by function e.g. cup/drink. The individual will look for reach for desired objects and people. A repertoire of different behaviours is developing, for instance, hitting, shaking and mouthing various objects. He or she will attempt to repeat actions, which brought about novel changes. The individual can shift his or her attention to more than one thing at a time. He or she is beginning to understand another person’s expressions and actions. The individual will also continue a movement during a pause in familiar interaction e.g. If being rocked, s/he will continue the rocking a break as a signal to reinstate the movement. He or she begins to imitate simple gestures e.g. waving, clapping. Towards the end of stage, the behaviours become more intentional the individual sees what he or she wants and goes for it, although the way he or she does it may not always be successful.

Stage 4. Intentional-Informal stage:

The individual acts on the environment to create a specific effect. By the time the individual reaches the early intentional stage of development he or she knows how to use an object to get the carer’s attention or how to use another person to get an object that he or she wants. Object permanency is established and the individual will actively try to look for objects that disappear. He or she will also use a repertoire of behaviours including alternating gaze to get his or her needs met le. Looking back and forth between the communication partner and the item or activity that is wanted as a way of requesting it. There begins to be a range of communicative functions e.g. protests, greeting, positive and negative attention seeking. Receptively, the individual recogninises and responds to common gestures e.g. come here, go away, wave. He or she also shows simple imitation skills.

Stage 5. Intentional-Formal stage:

At this stage the individual is beginning to integrate the information from his/her senses. He or she will drop or throw something deliberately, monitor the action and look to see where it falls. The individual is more able to solve problems through trial and error. Objectives are beginning to be used appropriately e.g. use of a straw, a comb, a purse. The individual learns that the same object will do different things depending on how it is used e.g. papers tears, paper crumples. Reaching for something turns into pointing to something. The individual is able to communicate a wide range of intentions or functions to others in a way that is more conventionally understood e.g. through gestures, single words and vocalizations. He or she will show or give objects as a way of initiating or maintaining an interaction with another person. He or she will understand the key words in a sentence particularly when used in context.

Stage 6. Intentional-Referential stage:

The individual starts to have an internalized mental representation of the word around them; He or she is able to solve simple problems by thinking about them rather then through trial and error. Deferred imitation skills are established e.g. can imitate unfamiliar actions after an event. The individual may also be able to mime or act out an event. Joint action routines are established where the individual learns that interactions follows a familiar sequence of events and can anticipate these and indicate when the sequence is varied e.g. dressing, grooming, mealtimes. For instance, with dressing- the caregiver uses the same order- singlet first, then t-shirt or jumper, underpants, socks, pants and shoes. The function of a range of objects is known and objects are used purposefully. Objects may also be used to established or maintain a social interaction or because he or she needs help with an activity e.g. bring a key to open cupboard where a favourite item is kept.

Hierarchy of learning language:




Speech


Expressive language

Receptive language

Play

Attention



Interactional Behaviors:

Some interactional behaviors are essential for communication development of a child. These are-

Joint reference:

Also known as “joint attention”. Joint reference means- two or more individuals share a common focus together on one point of interest (object/event/person). (Owens, 2001, pp.184)

The baby and mother insert in a system to ensure joint selective attention at earliest stage. For an example, the mother will shake an object before her infant to be a focus for the infant’s attention it. These routines are accustomed to achieve eye contact, the first step in Joint reference.

Joint action:

Infant and the caregiver build up dual behaviors in a familiar context through out the first year of life. The routinized actions (i.e.- game playing and daily routine) are called joint action.

Conversational skills and turn taking are learned. Rules of communication can be learned within a familiar and pleasurable social sequence.

Game playing:

Caregiver and the infant begin to play almost from birth. Depending on caregivers and child’s interest, the games become ritual exchanges that mention upon or sensitively mark common patterns of interaction.

Routines:

It means- the conventionalized and predictable scripts or scaffolds for interpretation and behaviors in which caregiver provide order. Conceptual foundations of later language development is achieved within familiar daily routines and events (bathing, toileting, dressing, feeding etc.)

Turn taking:

Turn taking is very essential aspect of interactional behavior for rurther development of conversational skills that is language development. It occurs in early breast-feeding. A ‘turn” may entail vocalization, movement of body parts, facial expression etc. It occurs in games with pauses for infant responses (tickling, lifting, bouncing etc.). It develops protoconversation (similar to conversation) with alternating vocalization, then gestures and words.

Babytalk/motherese/parentese:

Motherese is a special style of talking with children which contains short and simple form of sentences, special body movement and special facial expression.

Characteristic of motherese:

· Small core vocabulary
· Short length of utterance
· Infant vocal behavior is treated as meaningful
· Much use of verbal rituals and repetitions
· Talk refers to the here and now
· Much use of greetings
· Mother pauses even if the child doesn’t respond
· Much use of pitch and loudness


Activities to Encourage your Child's Language
Encourage the child to express opinion by using gesture
Talk simply, clearly, and slowly to your child
Give him/her opportunities to make choice
Play simple games with your child
Comment on what you did or how you think your child feels.
Talk to your child as you care for him or her throughout the day
Use a lot of pictures
Tell rhymes and sing songs.
Allow the child to use symbolic or invented word e.g.- mew sound to indicate cat
Talk to your baby about everything you're doing while you're with him/her
Reward and encourage early efforts to communicate
Give reinforcement for child’s response
Continue to say social stories.
Praise your child when she talks about her feelings, thoughts, hopes and fears.
Look at family photos and talk to him about your family history.
Listen to her when she talks to you or tries to express something.

















GLOSSARY


Approximate- near, estimated
Blink- flash
Core- center, middle
Dissimilar- different
Exact- precise/accurate
Increasingly- gradually
Imitation- reproduction
Intentionality- goal directed behavior
Interaction- interface, contact, relation
Manipulation- handling, management
Non-intentional- not goal directed or purposeful
Overhang- protrusion
Preverbal- before speech
Protest- objection, complain
Prick- puncture, perforation
Plagued- beset
Predilection- preference, liking, fondness
Pause- silence
Pitch- terrain
Predictable- expected
Protoconversation- similar to conversation
Quiver- tremble, shake
Ritual- formal procedure
Repetition- echo, recurrence
Remoteness- distance
Retort- comeback with, rejoin
Responsive- approachable, reactive
Reflexive- automatic, impulsive
Stimulate- arouse, inspire
Settle- clear up
Startle- surprise, shock, alarm
Substitute- alternate
Significance- importance
Stiffen- harden
Tickle- irritate, prickle
Unconscious- unaware
Wriggle- writhe



REFERENCES


1) Owens, R.E. (2001), Language Development: An Introduction, 5th Ed, Boston: Pearson Education, pp. 157-194

2) McConkey, R. & Price, P. (1986), Let’s Talk, London: Souvenir Press (E & A) Ltd., pp. 41-80


3) Crishna, B. (1996), Communication for the child with Cerebral Palsy, Calcutta: Indian Institute of cerebral palsy, pp. 1-6

4) Bloom, L. & Lahey, M. (1978), Language Development and Language Disorders, New York: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 69-97.


5) Coupe, J. Golart, J. (1988), Communication before Speech, London: Chpham and Hall, pp. 19-30


6) Sheridan, M., (1997), From Birth to Five years, London: Routledge.

Autism

Autism
Definition
Autism is a severe disorder of brain function marked by problems with social contact, intelligence and language, together with ritualistic or compulsive behavior and bizarre responses to the environment.
Autism is a brain disorder that affects the way the brain uses or transmits information. Studies have found abnormalities in several parts of the brain that almost certainly occurred during fetal development. The problem may be centered in the parts of the brain responsible for processing language and information from the senses.
Autism is a developmental disorder and the specific cause for autism is not known. It is believed that some biochemical imbalance would have caused autism and some believe that it is a psychological disorder. Children with autism cannot communicate their feelings and emotions properly. Such children find it difficult to socialize. They communicate only to get their needs and not to socialize.
Autism behaviors include lack of proper response to social and environmental stimulations. Communication in a child with autism would be minimal and there would be no eye contact and the child would be in its own world and the response would be very slow. These are some of the autism behaviors that can be noted. There are many therapies available for treating such children.
About autism
· Autism is characterized by impaired development in social interaction, communication, and behavior.
· The degree of autism varies from mild to severe.
· Severely afflicted patients can appear to have a profound intellectual disability.
· The cause of autism is unknown.
· The optimal treatment of autism involves an educational or vocational program that is suited to the developmental level of the child or adult, respectively
· Lack of pointing to direct others’ attention to objects (occurs in the first 14 months of life)
· Does not adjust gaze to look at objects that others are looking at
· Cannot start or sustain a social conversation
· Develops language slowly or not at all
· Repeats words or memorized passages, such as commercials
· Does not refer to self correctly (for example, says "you want water” when the child means "I want water")
· Uses nonsense rhyming
· Communicates with gestures instead of words
Causes:

Autism is a physical condition linked to abnormal biology and chemistry in the brain. The exact causes of these abnormalities remain unknown, but this is a very active area of research. There are probably combinations of factors that lead to autism.

Genetic factors seem to be important. For example, identical twins are much more likely than fraternal twins or siblings to both have autism. Similarly, language abnormalities are more common in relatives of autistic children. Chromosomal abnormalities and other neurological problems are more common in families with autism.
What Are the Symptoms?
Symptoms of autism include:
Extreme difficulty in learning language.
Inappropriate response to people. A child with autism may avoid eye contact, resist being picked up or cuddled, and seem to tune out the world.
Inability or reduced ability to play cooperatively with other children or to make friends.
Inability to understand other people's feelings.
Need for a rigid, highly structured routine -- and being very distressed by changes in routines.
Extreme hyperactivity or unusual passivity, and extreme resistance to change.
Repetitive body movements including pacing, hand flicking, twisting, spinning, rocking or hitting oneself.
Insensitivity to pain or lack of response to cold or heat.
Impulsive behavior and no real fear of dangers.
An unusual attachment to inanimate objects such as toys, strings or spinning objects.
Frequent crying and tantrums for no apparent reason.
Peculiar speech patterns. An autistic child may use words without understanding their meanings.
Abnormal responses to sensations such as light sound and touch. At times an autistic child may appear deaf. At other times the child may be extremely distressed by everyday noises.
Some of these symptoms occur in children with other disabilities. Symptoms can change, as the child grows older.

Treatments:
There is no cure for autism. Treatments are aimed at reducing specific symptoms. Because the symptoms vary so widely from one person to the next, there is not a single approach that works for every person. A spectrum of interventions includes training in music, listening, vision, speech and language, and senses. Special diets and medications may also be prescribed. Speech and language therapists and Occupational therapists can help to improve their skills.

Prevention of ఆటిసం:
Until the cause of autism is discovered, prevention is not possible.

Voice problem and SLT

The reason for vocal problems of singers:

Dried out mucous membranes, too much mucous and bad monitoring systems can give the singer the impression that the voice is not working as it should. When the voice does not respond normally, the singer often compensates with greater tensions, which make the voice sound unusual and which again can lead to constrictions. The constrictions further prevent the voice from working, causing the singer to create still more constrictions. It is important not to go astray and start this vicious circle where techniques are replaced by constrictions.

The importance of physical strength:

Often problems occur because a singer runs out of strength. If a singer starts getting tired on tour or during extended recording sessions, she or he will lack the necessary strength and energy to support the notes and thereby keep an open throat.

Many singers experience this at the end of a concert. With no more physical strength left, the voice fatigues. The accompanying constrictions put further strain on the vocal cords and you have to use even more strength to sing, which is yet more tiring. Typically, the high notes are the first to fail and the volume decrease.

Sleep:

It is essential to get enough sleep, especially on demanding tours. Without enough sleep the vocal cords do not get time to regenerate or heal the irritation that might have developed. Sleep is also necessary for rebuilding the physical strength vital to support.

How much sleep a singer requires varies. The singer must know and respect her or his individual needs if she or he wants to survive a demanding period without harm.

Stick to correct techniques:

The best singer can do, what ever irregularities she or he is subjected to, and even if the voice does not sound normal, is to keep using techniques that are even if the familiar and have worked previously. If the singer is becoming hoarse and the notes require double the normal amount of strength, then she or he should give them double the support and maintain an unconstricted way of singing.

The voiceless period:

If a singer has been diagnosed with nodules on the vocal cords. We recommend a voiceless period of a week or two depending on how developed the nodules are. By a voiceless period we mean: ‘Do Not Make A Single Sound’. The singer should not whisper because this tries the voice even more than ordinary speech. And even clearing the throat should be avoided. Let the singer give the vocal cords a rest and write little notes instead. This method is very efficient and has no side-effects. Many discover that it is actually a valuable mental experience not to speak for two weeks.

If it is absolutely necessary to speak, the singer should do so clearly, with plenty of support. It is not a good idea to whisper or be ‘cautious’. Often singers put more constriction on the voice by being cautious. They forget all about supporting the voice when they speak quietly. It requires a lot of technique to speak quietly in a correct manner. It is better to add a bit more sound and to support well.

There are still some exercises the singer can do during the voiceless period, and after the period has concluded, the singer is recommended to follow certain directions, among them getting a new diagnosis from an ENT doctor.